Home LiteratureArticle Details
PMID: 19503065 Published · ppublish English Journal Article Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S. Review

Common strategies for antigenic variation by bacterial, fungal and protozoan pathogens.

Nature reviews. Microbiology ·Vol. 7 ·No. 7 ·2009-07-00 ·Pages 493-503

Deitsch KW, Lukehart SA, Stringer JR

Abstract

The complex relationships between infectious organisms and their hosts often reflect the continuing struggle of the pathogen to proliferate and spread to new hosts, and the need of the infected individual to control and potentially eradicate the infecting population. This has led, in the case of mammals and the pathogens that infect them, to an 'arms race', in which the highly adapted mammalian immune system has evolved to control the proliferation of infectious organisms and the pathogens have developed correspondingly complex genetic systems to evade this immune response. We review how bacterial, protozoan and fungal pathogens from distant evolutionary lineages have evolved surprisingly similar mechanisms of antigenic variation to avoid eradication by the host immune system and can therefore maintain persistent infections and ensure their transmission to new hosts.

MeSH Terms
Animals Antigenic Variation/genetics,physiology Bacteria/genetics,immunology,pathogenicity Eukaryota/genetics,immunology,pathogenicity Fungi/genetics,immunology,pathogenicity Host-Parasite Interactions Host-Pathogen Interactions Humans
Authors & Affiliations
3 authors, click to expand affiliations / ORCID
Deitsch Kirk W
Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York 10021, USA. [email protected]
Lukehart Sheila A
Stringer James R
References (118)
118 references, click to expand
  1. Variable switching rates of malaria virulence genes are associated with chromosomal position.
    Mol Microbiol. 2007 Jun;64(6):1486-98 PMID: 17555435
  2. Mechanisms underlying mutually exclusive expression of virulence genes by malaria parasites.
    EMBO Rep. 2007 Oct;8(10):959-65 PMID: 17762879
  3. Kinetics and in vivo induction of genetic variation of vlsE in Borrelia burgdorferi.
    Infect Immun. 1998 Aug;66(8):3689-97 PMID: 9673250
  4. Differential expression of var gene groups is associated with morbidity caused by Plasmodium falciparum infection in Tanzanian children.
    Infect Immun. 2006 Jul;74(7):3904-11 PMID: 16790763
  5. Trypanosoma brucei variant-specific glycoprotein gene chromatin is sensitive to single-strand-specific endonuclease digestion.
    J Mol Biol. 1987 Oct 5;197(3):471-83 PMID: 2831370
  6. Regulation of P-fimbrial phase variation frequencies in Escherichia coli CFT073.
    Infect Immun. 2007 Jul;75(7):3325-34 PMID: 17452474
  7. Antigenic variation in pneumocystis.
    J Eukaryot Microbiol. 2007 Jan-Feb;54(1):8-13 PMID: 17300510
  8. Cloning the P. falciparum gene encoding PfEMP1, a malarial variant antigen and adherence receptor on the surface of parasitized human erythrocytes.
    Cell. 1995 Jul 14;82(1):77-87 PMID: 7541722
  9. Differential var gene expression in the organs of patients dying of falciparum malaria.
    Mol Microbiol. 2007 Aug;65(4):959-67 PMID: 17617167
  10. Active transcription is required for maintenance of epigenetic memory in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum.
    J Mol Biol. 2008 Oct 3;382(2):288-97 PMID: 18656490
  11. Sequestration in Plasmodium falciparum malaria: sticky cells and sticky problems.
    Parasitol Today. 1990 Aug;6(8):247-54 PMID: 15463355
  12. Differential RNA elongation controls the variant surface glycoprotein gene expression sites of Trypanosoma brucei.
    Mol Microbiol. 2000 Apr;36(2):328-40 PMID: 10792720
  13. A novel ISWI is involved in VSG expression site downregulation in African trypanosomes.
    EMBO J. 2007 May 2;26(9):2400-10 PMID: 17431399
  14. Mechanisms underlying the monocyte-mediated antibody-dependent killing of Plasmodium falciparum asexual blood stages.
    J Exp Med. 1995 Aug 1;182(2):409-18 PMID: 7629503
  15. Monoallelic gene expression: a repertoire of recurrent themes.
    Immunol Rev. 2004 Aug;200:197-214 PMID: 15242406
  16. Mechanism of antigenic variation in Mycoplasma pulmonis: interwoven, site-specific DNA inversions.
    Mol Microbiol. 1995 Nov;18(4):703-14 PMID: 8817492
  17. Phase variation of gonococcal pili by frameshift mutation in pilC, a novel gene for pilus assembly.
    EMBO J. 1991 Feb;10(2):477-88 PMID: 1671354
  18. Frequent recombination events generate diversity within the multi-copy variant antigen gene families of Plasmodium falciparum.
    Int J Parasitol. 2008 Aug;38(10):1099-109 PMID: 18395207
  19. Antigenic variation in Babesia bovis occurs through segmental gene conversion of the ves multigene family, within a bidirectional locus of active transcription.
    Mol Microbiol. 2006 Jan;59(2):402-14 PMID: 16390438
  20. Characterization of a multigene family undergoing high-frequency DNA rearrangements and coding for abundant variable surface proteins in Mycoplasma agalactiae.
    Infect Immun. 2000 Aug;68(8):4539-48 PMID: 10899853
  21. Candida-host cell receptor-ligand interactions.
    Curr Opin Microbiol. 2006 Aug;9(4):333-9 PMID: 16837237
  22. Switches in expression of Plasmodium falciparum var genes correlate with changes in antigenic and cytoadherent phenotypes of infected erythrocytes.
    Cell. 1995 Jul 14;82(1):101-10 PMID: 7606775
  23. Activation of trypanosome surface glycoprotein genes involves a duplication-transposition leading to an altered 3' end.
    Cell. 1981 Dec;27(3 Pt 2):497-505 PMID: 6101223
  24. Telomeric heterochromatin propagation and histone acetylation control mutually exclusive expression of antigenic variation genes in malaria parasites.
    Cell. 2005 Apr 8;121(1):25-36 PMID: 15820676
  25. Contacting the host: insights and implications of pathogenic Neisseria cell interactions.
    Scand J Infect Dis. 2003;35(9):608-13 PMID: 14620143
  26. Antibody responses elicited against the Treponema pallidum repeat proteins differ during infection with different isolates of Treponema pallidum subsp. pallidum.
    Infect Immun. 2003 Oct;71(10):6054-7 PMID: 14500529
  27. Passive immunization of hamsters against experimental infection with the Lyme disease spirochete.
    Infect Immun. 1986 Sep;53(3):713-4 PMID: 3744563
  28. The indigenous gastrointestinal microflora.
    Trends Microbiol. 1996 Nov;4(11):430-5 PMID: 8950812
  29. Variable antigen genes of the relapsing fever agent Borrelia hermsii are activated by promoter addition.
    Mol Microbiol. 1991 Feb;5(2):489-93 PMID: 2041480
  30. Reactivity of antibodies from syphilis patients to a protein array representing the Treponema pallidum proteome.
    J Clin Microbiol. 2006 Mar;44(3):888-91 PMID: 16517872
  31. Demonstration of the in vitro phagocytosis of Treponema pallidum by rabbit peritoneal macrophages.
    J Immunol. 1978 Nov;121(5):2014-24 PMID: 361893
  32. Epigenetic gene regulation in the bacterial world.
    Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2006 Sep;70(3):830-56 PMID: 16959970
  33. Molecular evolution of the tprC, D, I, K, G, and J genes in the pathogenic genus Treponema.
    Mol Biol Evol. 2006 Nov;23(11):2220-33 PMID: 16926243
  34. Localization of the modified base J in telomeric VSG gene expression sites of Trypanosoma brucei.
    Genes Dev. 1997 Dec 1;11(23):3232-41 PMID: 9389654
  35. Antigenic variation in malaria: in situ switching, relaxed and mutually exclusive transcription of var genes during intra-erythrocytic development in Plasmodium falciparum.
    EMBO J. 1998 Sep 15;17(18):5418-26 PMID: 9736619
  36. STUDIES IN THE ACQUISITION OF IMMUNITY OF PLASMODIUM FALCIPARUM INFECTIONS IN AFRICA.
    Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1964 Jan;58:80-92 PMID: 14117559
  37. Complete genome sequence of Treponema pallidum, the syphilis spirochete.
    Science. 1998 Jul 17;281(5375):375-88 PMID: 9665876
  38. Characterization of the serum requirement for macrophage-mediated killing of Treponema pallidum ssp. pallidum: relationship to the development of opsonizing antibodies.
    FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 1993 Apr;6(4):273-9 PMID: 8499892
  39. Mycoplasma genitalium: an efficient strategy to generate genetic variation from a minimal genome.
    Mol Microbiol. 2007 Oct;66(1):220-36 PMID: 17784912
  40. Variable lipoprotein genes of Mycoplasma agalactiae are activated in vivo by promoter addition via site-specific DNA inversions.
    Infect Immun. 2003 Jul;71(7):3821-30 PMID: 12819065
  41. Surface antigenic variation in Giardia lamblia.
    Mol Microbiol. 2002 Aug;45(3):585-90 PMID: 12139606
  42. Antigenic variation in Giardia lamblia is regulated by RNA interference.
    Nature. 2008 Dec 11;456(7223):750-4 PMID: 19079052
  43. The repertoire of silent pilus genes in Neisseria gonorrhoeae: evidence for gene conversion.
    Cell. 1986 Jan 17;44(1):107-15 PMID: 2866848
  44. Antigenic variation by Borrelia hermsii occurs through recombination between extragenic repetitive elements on linear plasmids.
    Mol Microbiol. 2006 Jun;60(6):1329-43 PMID: 16796672
  45. Selection of Babesia bovis-infected erythrocytes for adhesion to endothelial cells coselects for altered variant erythrocyte surface antigen isoforms.
    J Immunol. 2000 Feb 15;164(4):2037-45 PMID: 10657656
  46. Opacity genes in Neisseria gonorrhoeae: control of phase and antigenic variation.
    Cell. 1986 Oct 10;47(1):61-71 PMID: 3093085
  47. Interactions of pathogenic neisseriae with epithelial cell membranes.
    Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 2000;16:423-57 PMID: 11031243
  48. A unique, bifunctional site-specific DNA recombinase from Mycoplasma pulmonis.
    Mol Microbiol. 2002 Nov;46(4):1033-40 PMID: 12421309
  49. Phenotypic switching of variable surface lipoproteins in Mycoplasma bovis involves high-frequency chromosomal rearrangements.
    J Bacteriol. 1996 Sep;178(18):5395-401 PMID: 8808927
  50. Juxtaposition of an active promoter to vsp genes via site-specific DNA inversions generates antigenic variation in Mycoplasma bovis.
    J Bacteriol. 2001 Oct;183(19):5698-708 PMID: 11544233
  51. Antigenic variation of TprK V regions abrogates specific antibody binding in syphilis.
    Infect Immun. 2006 Nov;74(11):6244-51 PMID: 16923793
  52. Virulence of malaria is associated with differential expression of Plasmodium falciparum var gene subgroups in a case-control study.
    J Infect Dis. 2006 Jun 1;193(11):1567-74 PMID: 16652286
  53. Selective upregulation of a single distinctly structured var gene in chondroitin sulphate A-adhering Plasmodium falciparum involved in pregnancy-associated malaria.
    Mol Microbiol. 2003 Jul;49(1):179-91 PMID: 12823820
  54. Frequency of pilin antigenic variation in Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
    J Bacteriol. 1998 Apr;180(7):1955-8 PMID: 9537399
  55. Recombinational switch for gene expression.
    Science. 1977 Apr 8;196(4286):170-2 PMID: 322276
  56. Regulation of pap pilin phase variation by a mechanism involving differential dam methylation states.
    EMBO J. 1990 Dec;9(12):4045-54 PMID: 2147413
  57. Juxtaposition of expressed variable antigen genes with a conserved telomere in the bacterium Borrelia hermsii.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1990 Aug;87(16):6077-81 PMID: 2385585
  58. The frequency and rate of pilin antigenic variation in Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
    Mol Microbiol. 2005 Oct;58(2):510-9 PMID: 16194236
  59. Passive immunizing activity of sera from mice infected with Borrelia burgdorferi.
    Infect Immun. 1993 Nov;61(11):4696-702 PMID: 8406868
  60. Antigenic characterization and cytolocalization of P35, the major Mycoplasma penetrans antigen.
    Microbiology (Reading). 1999 Feb;145 ( Pt 2):343-355 PMID: 10075417
  61. Host response to Treponema pallidum in intradermally-infected rabbits: evidence for persistence of infection at local and distant sites.
    J Invest Dermatol. 1980 Dec;75(6):470-5 PMID: 7003026
  62. Plasmodium falciparum associated with severe childhood malaria preferentially expresses PfEMP1 encoded by group A var genes.
    J Exp Med. 2004 May 3;199(9):1179-90 PMID: 15123742
  63. Variability of a bacterial surface protein and disease expression in a possible mouse model of systemic Lyme borreliosis.
    J Exp Med. 1994 Feb 1;179(2):631-42 PMID: 8294872
  64. Upstream open reading frames as regulators of mRNA translation.
    Mol Cell Biol. 2000 Dec;20(23):8635-42 PMID: 11073965
  65. Antigenic variation of Borrelia hermsii.
    J Exp Med. 1982 Nov 1;156(5):1297-311 PMID: 7130900
  66. From silent genes to noisy populations-dialogue between the genotype and phenotypes of antigenic variation.
    J Eukaryot Microbiol. 2007 Jan-Feb;54(1):14-7 PMID: 17300511
  67. Pathogen escape from host immunity by a genome program for antigenic variation.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Nov 28;103(48):18290-5 PMID: 17101971
  68. Sera from patients with chronic Lyme disease protect mice from Lyme borreliosis.
    J Infect Dis. 1994 Mar;169(3):568-74 PMID: 8158028
  69. Nicotinic acid limitation regulates silencing of Candida adhesins during UTI.
    Science. 2005 May 6;308(5723):866-70 PMID: 15774723
  70. Phase variation among major surface antigens of Mycoplasma penetrans.
    Infect Immun. 2001 Dec;69(12):7642-51 PMID: 11705944
  71. Genome scale identification of Treponema pallidum antigens.
    Infect Immun. 2005 Jul;73(7):4445-50 PMID: 15972547
  72. mgpB and mgpC sequence diversity in Mycoplasma genitalium is generated by segmental reciprocal recombination with repetitive chromosomal sequences.
    Mol Microbiol. 2007 Oct;66(1):55-73 PMID: 17880423
  73. Effects of recA mutations on pilus antigenic variation and phase transitions in Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
    Genetics. 1987 Nov;117(3):391-8 PMID: 2891588
  74. 5' flanking region of var genes nucleate histone modification patterns linked to phenotypic inheritance of virulence traits in malaria parasites.
    Mol Microbiol. 2007 Dec;66(6):1296-305 PMID: 18028313
  75. Switching trypanosome coats: what's in the wardrobe?
    Trends Genet. 2006 Nov;22(11):614-20 PMID: 16908087
  76. The ves multigene family of B. bovis encodes components of rapid antigenic variation at the infected erythrocyte surface.
    Mol Cell. 2000 Jan;5(1):153-62 PMID: 10678177
  77. Epigenetic mechanisms are involved in the control of Giardia lamblia antigenic variation.
    Mol Microbiol. 2006 Sep;61(6):1533-42 PMID: 16968226
  78. Variable expression of class 1 outer membrane protein in Neisseria meningitidis is caused by variation in the spacing between the -10 and -35 regions of the promoter.
    J Bacteriol. 1995 May;177(9):2475-80 PMID: 7730280
  79. A histone methyltransferase modulates antigenic variation in African trypanosomes.
    PLoS Biol. 2008 Jul 1;6(7):e161 PMID: 18597556
  80. Human malaria in immunocompromised mice: an in vivo model to study defense mechanisms against Plasmodium falciparum.
    J Exp Med. 2000 Dec 4;192(11):1653-60 PMID: 11104807
  81. RNA polymerase I transcribes procyclin genes and variant surface glycoprotein gene expression sites in Trypanosoma brucei.
    Eukaryot Cell. 2003 Jun;2(3):542-51 PMID: 12796299
  82. Antigenic variation in trypanosomes: secrets surface slowly.
    Bioessays. 1996 Apr;18(4):283-91 PMID: 8967896
  83. Characterization of lymphocyte responsiveness in early experimental syphilis. II. Nature of cellular infiltration and Treponema pallidum distribution in testicular lesions.
    J Immunol. 1980 Jan;124(1):461-7 PMID: 6153103
  84. Superinfection as a driver of genomic diversification in antigenically variant pathogens.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Feb 12;105(6):2123-7 PMID: 18252822
  85. Residence at the expression site is necessary and sufficient for the transcription of surface antigen genes of Pneumocystis carinii.
    Mol Microbiol. 1997 Jul;25(1):147-60 PMID: 11902717
  86. Self-perpetuating epigenetic pili switches in bacteria.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002 Dec 10;99 Suppl 4:16470-6 PMID: 12202745
  87. Competitive Lrp and Dam assembly at the pap regulatory region: implications for mechanisms of epigenetic regulation.
    J Mol Biol. 2008 Oct 31;383(1):92-105 PMID: 18706913
  88. Quantitative analysis of tpr gene expression in Treponema pallidum isolates: Differences among isolates and correlation with T-cell responsiveness in experimental syphilis.
    Infect Immun. 2007 Jan;75(1):104-12 PMID: 17030565
  89. Variable var transition rates underlie antigenic variation in malaria.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Jul 27;101(30):11129-34 PMID: 15256597
  90. Segregation of B and T cell epitopes of Treponema pallidum repeat protein K to variable and conserved regions during experimental syphilis infection.
    J Immunol. 2002 Jul 15;169(2):952-7 PMID: 12097401
  91. Patterns of gene recombination shape var gene repertoires in Plasmodium falciparum: comparisons of geographically diverse isolates.
    BMC Genomics. 2007 Feb 07;8:45 PMID: 17286864
  92. Antigenic variation of Anaplasma marginale by expression of MSP2 mosaics.
    Infect Immun. 2000 Nov;68(11):6133-8 PMID: 11035716
  93. A pol I transcriptional body associated with VSG mono-allelic expression in Trypanosoma brucei.
    Nature. 2001 Dec 13;414(6865):759-63 PMID: 11742402
  94. Opacity determinants of Neisseria gonorrhoeae: gene expression and chromosomal linkage to the gonococcal pilus gene.
    Cell. 1984 Jun;37(2):447-56 PMID: 6144397
  95. Antigenic variation of Anaplasma marginale msp2 occurs by combinatorial gene conversion.
    Mol Microbiol. 2002 Mar;43(5):1151-9 PMID: 11918803
  96. Epigenetic memory at malaria virulence genes.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Jan 16;104(3):899-902 PMID: 17209011
  97. Population genomics of the immune evasion (var) genes of Plasmodium falciparum.
    PLoS Pathog. 2007 Mar;3(3):e34 PMID: 17367208
  98. Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 is a parasitized erythrocyte receptor for adherence to CD36, thrombospondin, and intercellular adhesion molecule 1.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 Apr 16;93(8):3497-502 PMID: 8622965
  99. Virulence-related surface glycoproteins in the yeast pathogen Candida glabrata are encoded in subtelomeric clusters and subject to RAP1- and SIR-dependent transcriptional silencing.
    Genes Dev. 2003 Sep 15;17(18):2245-58 PMID: 12952896
  100. An upstream open reading frame controls translation of var2csa, a gene implicated in placental malaria.
    PLoS Pathog. 2009 Jan;5(1):e1000256 PMID: 19119419
  101. Evidence for the involvement of VAR2CSA in pregnancy-associated malaria.
    J Exp Med. 2004 Nov 1;200(9):1197-203 PMID: 15520249
  102. A subpopulation of Treponema pallidum is resistant to phagocytosis: possible mechanism of persistence.
    J Infect Dis. 1992 Dec;166(6):1449-53 PMID: 1431264
  103. Plasmodium falciparum var gene expression is developmentally controlled at the level of RNA polymerase II-mediated transcription initiation.
    Mol Microbiol. 2007 Feb;63(4):1237-47 PMID: 17257309
  104. Heterochromatin silencing and locus repositioning linked to regulation of virulence genes in Plasmodium falciparum.
    Cell. 2005 Apr 8;121(1):13-24 PMID: 15820675
  105. Epigenetics in Apicomplexa: control of gene expression during cell cycle progression, differentiation and antigenic variation.
    Curr Opin Microbiol. 2007 Aug;10(4):357-62 PMID: 17719264
  106. beta-D-glucosyl-hydroxymethyluracil: a novel modified base present in the DNA of the parasitic protozoan T. brucei.
    Cell. 1993 Dec 17;75(6):1129-36 PMID: 8261512
  107. Gene arrays at Pneumocystis carinii telomeres.
    Genetics. 2005 Aug;170(4):1589-600 PMID: 15965256
  108. Population biology of infectious diseases: Part I.
    Nature. 1979 Aug 2;280(5721):361-7 PMID: 460412
  109. Macrophage-mediated killing of opsonized Treponema pallidum.
    J Infect Dis. 1992 Jan;165(1):69-74 PMID: 1727898
  110. The molecular mechanisms used by Neisseria gonorrhoeae to initiate infection differ between men and women.
    Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004 Oct;17(4):965-81, table of contents PMID: 15489357
  111. The resolution of relapsing fever borreliosis requires IgM and is concurrent with expansion of B1b lymphocytes.
    J Immunol. 2003 Apr 1;170(7):3819-27 PMID: 12646649
  112. Antigenic variation in Plasmodium falciparum is associated with movement of var loci between subnuclear locations.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Apr 12;102(15):5414-9 PMID: 15797990
  113. Length of guanosine homopolymeric repeats modulates promoter activity of subfamily II tpr genes of Treponema pallidum ssp. pallidum.
    FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2007 Nov;51(2):289-301 PMID: 17683506
  114. Gene conversion: a mechanism for generation of heterogeneity in the tprK gene of Treponema pallidum during infection.
    Mol Microbiol. 2004 Jun;52(6):1579-96 PMID: 15186410
  115. The large diverse gene family var encodes proteins involved in cytoadherence and antigenic variation of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes.
    Cell. 1995 Jul 14;82(1):89-100 PMID: 7606788
  116. Malaria pathogenesis.
    Science. 1994 Jun 24;264(5167):1878-83 PMID: 8009217
  117. Genetic variation of the Borrelia burgdorferi gene vlsE involves cassette-specific, segmental gene conversion.
    Infect Immun. 1998 Aug;66(8):3698-704 PMID: 9673251
  118. Neisserial Opa proteins: impact on colonization, dissemination and immunity.
    Scand J Infect Dis. 2003;35(9):614-8 PMID: 14620144
Article Info
Journal
Nature reviews. Microbiology
Abbr.
Nat Rev Microbiol
ISSN
1740-1534
DOI
10.1038/nrmicro2145
Email
[email protected]
Published
2009-07-00
Epub
2009-00-08
Pages
493-503
Language
English
Region
England
NLM ID
101190261
PMCID
PMC3676878
Subset
IM
Grants
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI063940 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · AI63940 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · 5R01AI036701-14 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI036701 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · AI42143 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · AI 52390 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI042143 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI052390 · United States
External Links
PubMed source DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro2145 PMC Full Text View journal details
Analysis Services
Analysis Services

Contact

No. 2 Wenbo Road, Zhangqiu District, Jinan, Shandong

Qilu Normal University · Genelibs Bioinformatics Lab

750 Shunhua Rd, Jinan

2F, Bldg F, University Science Park

Tel: 0531-88819269

WeChat Official Account

Follow our WeChat subscription account for real-time updates and the latest in medical and biological research.


Business Email

E-mail: [email protected]

Copyright © 2026.Genelibs Jinan Honghui Biotechnology Co., Ltd. 鲁ICP备20007159号-2