Genetic and epigenetic determinants of injury risk and recovery in elite athletes: toward precision sports medicine.

Musculoskeletal injuries and interindividual variability in recovery remain critical challenges for sustaining elite athletic performance. Despite advances in diagnostics, training, and rehabilitation, unexplained differences in injury risk and recovery efficiency persist. Growing evidence implicates genetic and epigenetic mechanisms in these disparities, influencing collagen integrity, inflammatory regulation, oxidative stress, and muscle regeneration. Key contributors include single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in COL1A1, COL5A1, ACTN3, and IL6, as well as novel loci identified by genome-wide association studies (GWAS). Polygenic risk scores (PRS), which integrate the effects of multiple low-impact variants, enhance prediction compared to single-gene markers. Epigenetic regulators, including DNA methylation and exercise-responsive microRNAs (e.g., miR-206, miR-133a, miR-486), provide a dynamic interface linking genetic predisposition with environmental factors such as training load and nutrition. Integration of genomic data with wearable technologies and artificial intelligence enables real-time monitoring, adaptive recovery, and precision load management. Yet, clinical translation faces challenges including limited population diversity, interpretative complexity, and ethical concerns over data privacy and potential misuse. Advancing precision sports medicine will require multidisciplinary, systems-level strategies that unite molecular insights with practical implementation, ultimately enabling individualized injury prevention, optimized rehabilitation, and the preservation of long-term athlete health and performance.