Disaster-induced toxic metal mobilization in post-earthquake street dust of Adıyaman, Türkiye: Pollution indices, receptor model source apportionment, and probabilistic health risk evaluation.

Toxic metal mobilization within street dust emerged as a critical environmental consequence in Adıyaman, Türkiye, after the February 2023 earthquakes. Thirty road dust samples (<63 µm) collected in February 2025 were analyzed by ICP-MS for potentially toxic elements (PTEs). Element concentrations (mg/kg) followed the order: Al (31,523) > Fe (19,052) > Mn (489) > Ni (212) > Cr (143) > Zn (131) > Cu (45) > Pb (29) > Co (19) > As (4.5) > Cd (1.05). Pollution indices (CF, Igeo, EF, Eri, mCd, NPI, PLI, PERI, MPI, NRI) and multivariate analyses (PCA, HCA, PCC) indicated a crustal dominance (Al, Fe) with strong Ni and Cr enrichment and moderate Pb. Spatial hotspots coincided with demolition and debris-handling zones. Cd and Pb showed very high enrichment, with Cd posing the main ecological hazard. The APCS-MLR quantitatively confirmed the PCA based two source structure, showing that Al, Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, and Cr originated mainly from lithogenic and construction inputs, while Zn, Pb, Cu, and As were dominated by traffic and combustion sources. Monte Carlo Simulation identified ingestion as the primary exposure route. Adult risk remained low (mean THI= 5.9 ×10-2; 95% = 1.7 ×10-1), while children exhibited higher vulnerability (mean THI = 6.7 ×10-1; 95% = 2.17), with 17% exceeding HI = 1. Chromium dominated carcinogenic risk (mean TCR= 4.15 ×10-5; 95% = 1.08 ×10-4). Results indicate that post-earthquake demolition and debris handling likely contributed to the redistribution and surface accumulation of metal-bearing particles, emphasizing the need for targeted monitoring during urban recovery.