Environmental stress, water inequality, and environmental justice in Palestinian urban areas: a GIS-based assessment of sanitation and infrastructure disparities in the southern West Bank.

This study examines environmental justice disparities in the southern West Bank by assessing groundwater quality, wastewater management, and water supply infrastructure in Dura City, Fawwar Refugee Camp, and the Israeli settlement of Nahal Negohot. A mixed-methods approach combined field-based water sampling (71 points) with socio-demographic data (2014–2024) and GIS-based spatial analyses to generate composite indices, including the Environmental Stress Index (ESI) and Pollution Risk Index (PRI).Results indicate pronounced spatial inequities. Nitrate (NO₃⁻) concentrations in Dura City ranged from near zero to extreme peaks of 1,667.5 mg/L, exceeding WHO standards by up to 34 times, while Fawwar Camp exhibited moderate exceedances (51.5–147.1 mg/L). Nahal Negohot maintained low nitrate levels (<50 mg/L) due to centralized treatment and secure water supply. Total dissolved solids (TDS) reached 2,100 mg/L in Dura, 724 mg/L in Fawwar, and remained below 250 mg/L in Nahal Negohot. Electrical conductivity (EC) followed similar patterns, with values exceeding 2,600 µS/cm in Dura, 1,500 µS/cm in Fawwar, and <500 µS/cm in Nahal Negohot. The PRI highlighted high pollution risk in Dura (4.05), moderate risk in Fawwar (2.0–3.5), and low risk in Nahal Negohot (1.35–2.0).Water allocation in 2024 revealed stark inequities: Dura and Fawwar received only 13.5% and 7.2% of total supply, respectively, corresponding to 64.6 and 53 L/person/day, while Nahal Negohot received 79.3%, equivalent to 650 L/person/day. The ESI indicated high environmental stress in Dura, moderate stress in Fawwar, and low stress in Nahal Negohot, reflecting cumulative pressures from poor infrastructure, unregulated wastewater, illegal water extraction, network losses, and administrative deficiencies in Palestinian areas.These findings indicate that groundwater contamination and unequal water distribution are intertwined with structural and administrative constraints, resulting in environmental injustice. The study emphasizes the urgent need to enhance the capacity for integrated water and wastewater management, strengthen monitoring, and implement governance reforms to promote equitable and sustainable access to resources in the study area.