Home LiteratureArticle Details
PMID: 10503240 Published · ppublish English Journal Article Review

Polyamines. An overview.

Molecular biotechnology ·Vol. 11 ·No. 3 ·1999-06-00 ·Pages 229-50

Morgan DM

Abstract

The polyamines spermine, spermidine, and putrescine are small organic molecules one or more of which are present in all living organisms. Many natural products contain polyamine residues. Polyamines are synthesized by a highly regulated pathway from arginine or ornithine and also can be transported in and out of cells. Polyamines are degraded to a variety of compounds the functions of which are largely unknown. Polyamines influence the transcriptional and translational stages of protein synthesis, stabilize membranes, and, in mammalian systems, modulate neurophysiological functions and may act as intracellular messengers. However, at the molecular level the mode of action of the polyamines is largely unknown.

MeSH Terms
Animals Biogenic Polyamines/metabolism Homeostasis Humans
Chemicals
Biogenic Polyamines
Authors & Affiliations
1 authors, click to expand affiliations / ORCID
Morgan D M
References (132)
132 references, click to expand
  1. N1-monoacetylation abolishes the inhibitory effect of spermine and spermidine in the reticulocyte lysate translation system.
    Int J Biochem. 1986;18(8):705-11 PMID: 3743876
  2. A nitric oxide donor (spermine-NONOate) prevents the formation of neointima in rabbit carotid artery.
    Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 1997 Jun;24(6):436-8 PMID: 9171952
  3. Polyamine metabolism and function.
    Am J Physiol. 1982 Nov;243(5):C212-21 PMID: 6814260
  4. Sequestered end products and enzyme regulation: the case of ornithine decarboxylase.
    Microbiol Rev. 1992 Jun;56(2):280-90 PMID: 1620066
  5. Oxidation of spermidine and spermine in rat liver: purification and properties of polyamine oxidase.
    Biochemistry. 1977 Jan 11;16(1):91-100 PMID: 12798
  6. Polyamines and cellular regulation: perspectives.
    Biochem Soc Trans. 1990 Dec;18(6):1080-4 PMID: 2088814
  7. Properties of an acetylspermidine deacetylase from rat liver.
    Arch Biochem Biophys. 1978 Jun;188(2):360-3 PMID: 28089
  8. Future prospects for the chemotherapy of human trypanosomiasis. 1. Novel approaches to the chemotherapy of trypanosomiasis.
    Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1990 Sep-Oct;84(5):613-7 PMID: 2278053
  9. High specific induction of spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase in a human large cell lung carcinoma.
    Biochem J. 1990 Sep 15;270(3):615-20 PMID: 2241897
  10. Putrescine oxidase of Micrococcus rubens: primary structure and Escherichia coli.
    J Gen Microbiol. 1993 Mar;139(3):425-32 PMID: 8473854
  11. Spermidine biosynthesis. Purification and properties of propylamine transferase from Escherichia coli.
    J Biol Chem. 1973 Apr 10;248(7):2480-6 PMID: 4572733
  12. Polyamine biosynthesis and interconversion in rodent tissues.
    Fed Proc. 1982 Dec;41(14):3065-72 PMID: 7141002
  13. Synthesis and antitumor evaluation of the presumed cytotoxic metabolites of spermine and N,N'-bis(3-aminopropyl)nonane-1,9-diamine.
    J Med Chem. 1973 Jan;16(1):1-5 PMID: 4682195
  14. Mechanisms of spermine toxicity in baby-hamster kidney (BHK) cells. The role of amine oxidases and oxidative stress.
    Biochem J. 1991 Nov 15;280 ( Pt 1):193-8 PMID: 1741747
  15. IDENTIFICATION OF THE AMINOALDEHYDES PRODUCED BY THE OXIDATION OF SPERMINE AND SPERMIDINE WITH PURIFIED PLASMA AMINE OXIDASE.
    J Biol Chem. 1964 Jul;239:2194-203 PMID: 14209948
  16. N-(3-aminopropyl)pyrrolidin-2-one, a product of spermidine catabolism in vivo.
    Biochem J. 1982 Oct 15;208(1):189-97 PMID: 7159392
  17. Polyamine oxidases--enzymes of unknown function?
    Biochem Soc Trans. 1998 Nov;26(4):586-91 PMID: 10047787
  18. Recent developments in the biosynthesis of the tropane alkaloids.
    Planta Med. 1990 Aug;56(4):339-52 PMID: 2236285
  19. Polyamines in mammalian tumors. Part II.
    Adv Cancer Res. 1982;36:1-102 PMID: 6289636
  20. Catabolism of polyamines in the rat. Polyamines and their non-alpha-amino acid metabolites.
    Biochim Biophys Acta. 1984 Nov 28;802(2):175-87 PMID: 6498214
  21. Calf liver nuclear N-acetyltransferases. Purification and properties of two enzymes with both spermidine acetyltransferase and histone acetyltransferase activities.
    J Biol Chem. 1978 Jan 10;253(1):233-7 PMID: 22543
  22. Prevention of rapid intracellular degradation of ODC by a carboxyl-terminal truncation.
    Science. 1989 Mar 17;243(4897):1493-5 PMID: 2928784
  23. Purification and characterization of spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase from rat liver.
    Biochemistry. 1982 Nov 23;21(24):6152-8 PMID: 7150547
  24. Polyamine synthesis in mammalian tissues. Isolation and characterization of spermine synthase from bovine brain.
    Eur J Biochem. 1979 Nov;101(2):619-26 PMID: 520313
  25. Differential inhibition of histone and polyamine acetylases by multisubstrate analogues.
    Biochemistry. 1984 Aug 28;23(18):4250-5 PMID: 6487599
  26. Polyamines and mammalian hormones. Part II: Paracrine signals and intracellular regulators.
    Mol Cell Endocrinol. 1991 May;77(1-3):37-56 PMID: 1667762
  27. ISOLATION OF ACROLEIN FROM INCUBATED MIXTURES OF SPERMINE WITH CALF SERUM AND ITS EFFECTS ON MAMMALIAN CELLS.
    Arch Biochem Biophys. 1964 Jul 20;106:240-2 PMID: 14217164
  28. Interactions of polyamines with ion channels.
    Biochem J. 1997 Jul 15;325 ( Pt 2):289-97 PMID: 9230104
  29. Polyamines. An introduction.
    Methods Mol Biol. 1998;79:3-30 PMID: 9463813
  30. Cytotoxicity and kinetic analysis of purified bovine serum amine oxidase in the presence of spermine in Chinese hamster ovary cells.
    Arch Biochem Biophys. 1993 Jan;300(1):75-9 PMID: 8424693
  31. Enzymes and pathways of polyamine breakdown in microorganisms.
    FEMS Microbiol Rev. 1992 Jun;8(3-4):249-62 PMID: 1515162
  32. Polyamines as a chemotaxonomic marker in bacterial systematics.
    Crit Rev Microbiol. 1992;18(4):261-83 PMID: 1524675
  33. Identification of residues in ornithine decarboxylase essential for enzymic activity and for rapid protein turnover.
    Biochem J. 1991 Aug 1;277 ( Pt 3):671-5 PMID: 1872802
  34. The regulation and function of ornithine decarboxylase and of the polyamines.
    Curr Top Cell Regul. 1979;15:155-202 PMID: 393470
  35. Metabolism and functions of trypanothione in the Kinetoplastida.
    Annu Rev Microbiol. 1992;46:695-729 PMID: 1444271
  36. Cloning and sequence analysis of the gene and cDNA encoding mouse spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase--a gene uniquely regulated by polyamines and their analogs.
    Biochim Biophys Acta. 1993 Nov 16;1216(2):255-64 PMID: 8241266
  37. Ornithine decarboxylase antizyme: a novel type of regulatory protein.
    Trends Biochem Sci. 1996 Jan;21(1):27-30 PMID: 8848835
  38. Clinical relevance of polyamines.
    Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 1983;18(3):261-311 PMID: 6339165
  39. The DI- and polyamine oxidases of plants.
    Adv Exp Med Biol. 1988;250:573-87 PMID: 3151232
  40. Inhibition of nucleic acid and protein synthesis in Escherichia coli by oxidized polyamines and acrolein.
    Biochim Biophys Acta. 1971 Jan 1;228(1):235-44 PMID: 4926029
  41. Killer polyamines?
    J Cell Biochem. 1991 Jan;45(1):54-8 PMID: 2005185
  42. Simultaneous gas-chromatographic determination of free and acetyl-conjugated polyamines in urine.
    Clin Chem. 1986 Oct;32(10):1930-7 PMID: 3757213
  43. Polyamine membrane transport regulation.
    Cell Biol Int Rep. 1991 Jan;15(1):9-24 PMID: 2004429
  44. Polyamine transport regulation by calcium and calmodulin: role of Ca(2+)-ATPase.
    J Cell Physiol. 1993 Dec;157(3):493-501 PMID: 8253860
  45. Modulation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor by polyamines: molecular pharmacology and mechanisms of action.
    Biochem Soc Trans. 1994 Nov;22(4):884-7 PMID: 7698479
  46. Polyamines in mammalian tumors. Part I.
    Adv Cancer Res. 1981;35:151-268 PMID: 7041538
  47. Interconversion, catabolism and elimination of the polyamines.
    Med Biol. 1981 Dec;59(5-6):334-46 PMID: 7040832
  48. Polyamine metabolism and its importance in neoplastic growth and a target for chemotherapy.
    Cancer Res. 1988 Feb 15;48(4):759-74 PMID: 3123052
  49. Hypusine: its post-translational formation in eukaryotic initiation factor 5A and its potential role in cellular regulation.
    Biofactors. 1993 May;4(2):95-104 PMID: 8347280
  50. Ornithine decarboxylase as an enzyme target for therapy.
    Pharmacol Ther. 1992;54(2):195-215 PMID: 1438532
  51. The physiology and biochemistry of polyamines in plants.
    Arch Biochem Biophys. 1984 Dec;235(2):283-303 PMID: 6393877
  52. Metabolism of acetyl derivatives of polyamines in cultured polyamine-deficient rat hepatoma cells.
    Med Biol. 1981 Dec;59(5-6):347-53 PMID: 6803078
  53. [Sex-specific differences in the free amino acids in adult serum (author's transl)].
    Z Klin Chem Klin Biochem. 1972 Mar;10(3):132-5 PMID: 4681008
  54. N1-acetylspermidine is not a substrate for N-acetylspermidine deacetylase.
    Biochim Biophys Acta. 1986 Apr 11;881(2):297-9 PMID: 3955076
  55. Uptake of polyamines by human endothelial cells. Characterization and lack of effect of agonists of endothelial function.
    Biochem J. 1992 Sep 1;286 ( Pt 2):413-7 PMID: 1530574
  56. Polyamines in microorganisms.
    Microbiol Rev. 1985 Mar;49(1):81-99 PMID: 3157043
  57. Specific regulation by endogenous polyamines of translational initiation of S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase mRNA in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts.
    Biochem J. 1990 Jun 15;268(3):657-60 PMID: 2114097
  58. Occurrence of tertiary and quaternary branched polyamines in thermophilic archaebacteria.
    Microbios. 1994;79(319):109-19 PMID: 7968661
  59. Characterization of a full-length cDNA which codes for the human spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase.
    Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1991 Aug 30;179(1):407-15 PMID: 1652956
  60. Polyamines. The elusive cancer markers.
    Clin Lab Med. 1982 Sep;2(3):507-18 PMID: 6754223
  61. Polyamines.
    Essays Biochem. 1987;23:82-115 PMID: 3331368
  62. The influence of catabolic reactions on polyamine excretion.
    Biochem J. 1985 Jan 1;225(1):219-26 PMID: 3977824
  63. Differences between homogeneous spermidine synthases isolated from rat and pig liver.
    J Biochem. 1984 Oct;96(4):1273-81 PMID: 6520123
  64. Evaluation of the significance of polyamines and their oxidases in the aetiology of human cervical carcinoma.
    Br J Cancer. 1995 Nov;72(5):1194-9 PMID: 7577467
  65. Antizyme-dependent degradation of ornithine decarboxylase.
    Essays Biochem. 1995;30:37-47 PMID: 8822147
  66. Amino acid sequences common to rapidly degraded proteins: the PEST hypothesis.
    Science. 1986 Oct 17;234(4774):364-8 PMID: 2876518
  67. ANALOGS OF SPERMINE AND SPERMIDINE. I. SYNTHESIS OF POLYMETHYLENEPOLYAMINES BY REDUCTION OF CYANOETHYLATED ALPHA,OMEGA-ALKYLENEDIAMINES.
    J Med Chem. 1964 Nov;7:710-6 PMID: 14262793
  68. Maize polyamine oxidase: primary structure from protein and cDNA sequencing.
    FEBS Lett. 1998 Apr 10;426(1):62-6 PMID: 9598979
  69. On the subcellular localization of the polyamines.
    Biol Chem Hoppe Seyler. 1989 Dec;370(12):1279-84 PMID: 2482746
  70. Diagnostic and prognostic usefulness of N1,N8-diacetylspermidine and N1,N12-diacetylspermine in urine as novel markers of malignancy.
    J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 1997;123(10):539-45 PMID: 9393587
  71. Polyamines as tumor markers.
    Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci. 1981;16(1):1-34 PMID: 7035065
  72. The occurrence, subcellular localization and partial purification of diamine acetyltransferase in the yeast Candida boidinii grown on spermidine or putrescine as sole nitrogen source.
    Eur J Biochem. 1985 Apr 15;148(2):277-83 PMID: 3987688
  73. Polyamines and mammalian hormones. Part I: Biosynthesis, interconversion and hormone effects.
    Mol Cell Endocrinol. 1991 May;77(1-3):1-35 PMID: 1815994
  74. Ornithine decarboxylase: a key regulatory enzyme in normal and neoplastic growth.
    Drug Metab Rev. 1985;16(1-2):1-88 PMID: 3905315
  75. Bacterial polyamines, structures and biosynthesis.
    Biochem Soc Trans. 1985 Apr;13(2):316-8 PMID: 4018381
  76. Purification and partial characterization of human polyamine synthases.
    Biochem J. 1989 May 1;259(3):879-86 PMID: 2730590
  77. Polyamine degradation in foetal and adult bovine serum.
    Biochem J. 1982 Mar 15;202(3):603-11 PMID: 7092834
  78. Polyamines, arginine and nitric oxide.
    Biochem Soc Trans. 1994 Nov;22(4):879-83 PMID: 7698478
  79. Nitric oxide: physiology, pathophysiology, and pharmacology.
    Pharmacol Rev. 1991 Jun;43(2):109-42 PMID: 1852778
  80. Polyamines: from molecular biology to clinical applications.
    Ann Med. 1991 Aug;23(3):241-59 PMID: 1930914
  81. Comparison of the biosynthetic and biodegradative ornithine decarboxylases of Escherichia coli.
    Biochemistry. 1977 Apr 19;16(8):1580-4 PMID: 15587
  82. Influence of polyamines on membrane functions.
    Biochem J. 1989 May 15;260(1):1-10 PMID: 2673211
  83. Polyamines as targets for therapeutic intervention.
    Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 1995;35:55-91 PMID: 7598507
  84. Spermidine oxidase in human pregnancy serum. Probable identity with diamine oxidase.
    Biochem J. 1982 Jan 1;201(1):161-6 PMID: 6805462
  85. Polyamine transport in mammalian cells. An update.
    Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 1996 Aug;28(8):843-61 PMID: 8811834
  86. Tertiary and quaternary branched polyamines distributed in thermophilic Saccharococcus and Bacillus.
    Microbios. 1993;75(302):23-32 PMID: 8377660
  87. Hydroxyl radical production in the reactions of copper-containing amine oxidases with substrates.
    Biochim Biophys Acta. 1993 Jun 11;1157(2):162-6 PMID: 8389591
  88. Mass spectrometric identification of isoputreanine, a metabolite of spermidine and/or spermine, in human urine.
    J Chromatogr. 1982 Jun 11;230(1):142-7 PMID: 7107754
  89. Polyamines stimulate calcium uptake by human vascular endothelial cells.
    Biochem Soc Trans. 1990 Dec;18(6):1223-4 PMID: 2088883
  90. Nucleotide sequence of hamster spermidine/spermine-N1-acetyltransferase cDNA.
    Biochim Biophys Acta. 1992 Nov 15;1171(1):106-8 PMID: 1420355
  91. Ca2+/calmodulin regulation of putrescine uptake in cultured gastrointestinal epithelial cells.
    Am J Physiol. 1992 Jun;262(6 Pt 1):C1356-63 PMID: 1616003
  92. Purification of spermidine synthase from rat ventral prostate by affinity chromatography on immobilized S-adenosyl(5')-3-thiopropylamine.
    Arch Biochem Biophys. 1982 Jun;216(1):213-22 PMID: 7103507
  93. Polyamine oxidase in rat tissues.
    Biochim Biophys Acta. 1980 Oct;615(2):480-8 PMID: 7417459
  94. Feedback regulation of S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase synthesis.
    Biochem J. 1989 Feb 1;257(3):929-31 PMID: 2930498
  95. Purification and characterization of amine oxidase from soybean seedlings.
    Arch Biochem Biophys. 1993 Nov 15;307(1):35-9 PMID: 8239662
  96. Cytosolic and nuclear spermidine acetyltransferases in growing NIH 3T3 fibroblasts stimulated with serum or polyamines: relationship to polyamine-biosynthetic decarboxylases and histone acetyltransferase.
    Biochem J. 1993 Jul 15;293 ( Pt 2):475-9 PMID: 8343127
  97. Modulation of the NMDA receptor by polyamines.
    Life Sci. 1991;48(6):469-98 PMID: 1825128
  98. Quinoenzymes in biology.
    Annu Rev Biochem. 1994;63:299-344 PMID: 7979241
  99. Trypanothione metabolism and rational approaches to drug design.
    Biochem Soc Trans. 1990 Oct;18(5):717-20 PMID: 2083656
  100. Cloning and molecular analysis of the pea seedling copper amine oxidase.
    J Biol Chem. 1995 Jul 14;270(28):16939-46 PMID: 7622512
  101. Purification and characterization of polyamine oxidase from Ascaris suum.
    Biochem J. 1992 Apr 1;283 ( Pt 1):75-80 PMID: 1567380
  102. Polyamine synthesis in mammalian tissues. Isolation and characterization of spermidine synthase from bovine brain.
    Biochem J. 1984 May 1;219(3):991-1000 PMID: 6743257
  103. CGP 48664, a new S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase inhibitor with broad spectrum antiproliferative and antitumor activity.
    Cancer Res. 1994 Jun 15;54(12):3210-7 PMID: 8205541
  104. Human placental diamine oxidase. Improved purification and characterization of a copper- and manganese-containing amine oxidase with novel substrate specificity.
    Biochem J. 1976 Jun 1;155(3):679-87 PMID: 182134
  105. Characterization of human spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase purified from cultured melanoma cells.
    Arch Biochem Biophys. 1991 Feb 1;284(2):238-44 PMID: 1989509
  106. Gestational-age-dependent concentrations of polyamines, their conjugates and metabolites in urine and amniotic fluid.
    Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1988 Jul;95(7):669-75 PMID: 3415933
  107. Pharmacological properties of the natural polyamines and their depletion by biosynthesis inhibitors as a therapeutic approach.
    Prog Drug Res. 1991;37:107-59 PMID: 1763181
  108. Methionine adenosyltransferase (S-adenosylmethionine synthetase) and S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase.
    Adv Enzymol Relat Areas Mol Biol. 1984;56:251-82 PMID: 6364703
  109. Studies of the specificity and kinetics of rat liver spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase.
    Biochem J. 1983 Sep 1;213(3):701-6 PMID: 6615454
  110. A study on the metabolism of spermidine in mammals: purification and identification of a newly identified metabolite, 2-oxo-1-pyrrolidinepropionic acid, in rat urine.
    J Biochem. 1994 Feb;115(2):356-61 PMID: 8206886
  111. Serological differences between the multiple amine oxidases of yeasts and comparison of the specificities of the purified enzymes from Candida utilis and Pichia pastoris.
    Biochem J. 1983 May 1;211(2):481-93 PMID: 6409096
  112. Rat liver nuclear N-acetyltransferases: separation of two enzymes with both histone and spermidine acetyltransferase activity.
    Arch Biochem Biophys. 1980 Aug;203(1):384-9 PMID: 7406506
  113. Functions of polyamine acetylation.
    Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1987 Oct;65(10):2024-35 PMID: 3322538
  114. Recent advances in the biochemistry of polyamines in eukaryotes.
    Biochem J. 1986 Mar 1;234(2):249-62 PMID: 3087344
  115. Acrolein. IV. Evidence for the formation of the cytotoxic aldehyde acrolein from enzymatically oxidized spermine or spermidine.
    Arch Biochem Biophys. 1970 Apr;137(2):365-72 PMID: 5439302
  116. Purification of amine oxidase from beef plasma.
    J Biol Chem. 1954 Jun;208(2):645-61 PMID: 13174575
  117. Determination of amounts of polyamines excreted in urine: demonstration of N1,N8-diacetylspermidine and N1,N12-diacetylspermine as components commonly occurring in normal human urine.
    J Biochem. 1995 Jan;117(1):107-12 PMID: 7775374
  118. Agmatine, a bioactive metabolite of arginine. Production, degradation, and functional effects in the kidney of the rat.
    J Clin Invest. 1996 Jan 15;97(2):413-20 PMID: 8567962
  119. Investigation of polyamine metabolism by high-performance liquid chromatographic and gas chromatographic profiling methods.
    J Chromatogr B Biomed Appl. 1995 May 19;667(2):189-98 PMID: 7663691
  120. Mechanism of the irreversible inactivation of mouse ornithine decarboxylase by alpha-difluoromethylornithine. Characterization of sequences at the inhibitor and coenzyme binding sites.
    J Biol Chem. 1992 Jan 5;267(1):150-8 PMID: 1730582
  121. Reaffirmation that metabolism of polyamines by bovine plasma amine oxidase occurs strictly at the primary amino termini.
    J Biol Chem. 1998 Jul 31;273(31):19490-4 PMID: 9677370
  122. Human spermidine synthase: cloning and primary structure.
    DNA Cell Biol. 1990 Mar;9(2):103-10 PMID: 2344393
  123. Trypanosome ornithine decarboxylase is stable because it lacks sequences found in the carboxyl terminus of the mouse enzyme which target the latter for intracellular degradation.
    J Biol Chem. 1990 Jul 15;265(20):11823-6 PMID: 2365702
  124. S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase as an enzyme target for therapy.
    Pharmacol Ther. 1992 Dec;56(3):359-77 PMID: 1301596
  125. Spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase--the turning point in polyamine metabolism.
    FASEB J. 1993 May;7(8):653-61 PMID: 8500690
  126. Agmatine, the bacterial amine, is widely distributed in mammalian tissues.
    Life Sci. 1995;56(26):2319-30 PMID: 7791519
  127. Polyamine transport in mammalian cells.
    Int J Biochem. 1990;22(3):211-8 PMID: 2110083
  128. Deacetylation of N8-acetylspermidine by subcellular fractions of rat tissue.
    Arch Biochem Biophys. 1978 Jul;189(1):20-7 PMID: 708044
  129. Endothelial polyamine uptake: selective stimulation by L-arginine deprivation or polyamine depletion.
    Am J Physiol. 1994 Mar;266(3 Pt 1):C776-83 PMID: 8166241
  130. Alpha-methyl ornithine, a potent competitive inhibitor of ornithine decarboxylase, blocks proliferation of rat hepatoma cells in culture.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1976 May;73(5):1626-30 PMID: 1064034
  131. HPLC and NMR investigation of the serum amine oxidase catalyzed oxidation of polyamines.
    Acta Chem Scand. 1994 Jan;48(1):52-60 PMID: 8130014
  132. Inhibition of ornithine decarboxylase potentiates nitric oxide production in LPS-activated J774 cells.
    Br J Pharmacol. 1998 Dec;125(7):1511-6 PMID: 9884080
Article Info
Journal
Molecular biotechnology
Abbr.
Mol Biotechnol
ISSN
1073-6085
Published
1999-06-00
Pages
229-50
Language
English
Region
United States
NLM ID
9423533
Subset
IM
Analysis Services
Analysis Services

Contact

No. 2 Wenbo Road, Zhangqiu District, Jinan, Shandong

Qilu Normal University · Genelibs Bioinformatics Lab

750 Shunhua Rd, Jinan

2F, Bldg F, University Science Park

Tel: 0531-88819269

WeChat Official Account

Follow our WeChat subscription account for real-time updates and the latest in medical and biological research.


Business Email

E-mail: [email protected]