Home LiteratureArticle Details
PMID: 18007680 Published · ppublish English Journal Article Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural Review

Protective immune mechanisms in helminth infection.

Nature reviews. Immunology ·Vol. 7 ·No. 12 ·2007-12-00 ·Pages 975-87

Anthony RM, Rutitzky LI, Urban JF, Stadecker MJ, Gause WC

Abstract

Important insights have recently been gained in our understanding of how host immune responses mediate resistance to parasitic helminths and control associated pathological responses. Although similar cells and cytokines are evoked in response to infection by helminths as diverse as nematodes and schistosomes, the components of the response that mediate protection are dependent on the particular parasite. In this Review, we examine recent findings regarding the mechanisms of protection in helminth infections that have been elucidated in murine models and discuss the implications of these findings in terms of future therapies.

MeSH Terms
Animals Basophils/physiology Cytokines/physiology Eosinophils/physiology Granuloma/immunology Helminthiasis/immunology Humans Immunity, Innate Macrophages/immunology Mast Cells/physiology Neutrophils/immunology T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/physiology Th2 Cells/immunology
Chemicals
Cytokines
Authors & Affiliations
5 authors, click to expand affiliations / ORCID
Anthony Robert M
The Laboratory of Molecular Genetics and Immunology, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10021, USA.
Rutitzky Laura I
Urban Joseph F
Stadecker Miguel J
Gause William C
References (136)
136 references, click to expand
  1. Inhibition of autoimmune type 1 diabetes by gastrointestinal helminth infection.
    Infect Immun. 2007 Jan;75(1):397-407 PMID: 17043101
  2. The pathogenesis of schistosomiasis is controlled by cooperating IL-10-producing innate effector and regulatory T cells.
    J Immunol. 2004 Mar 1;172(5):3157-66 PMID: 14978122
  3. The immunobiology of schistosomiasis.
    Nat Rev Immunol. 2002 Jul;2(7):499-511 PMID: 12094224
  4. Interleukin 25 regulates type 2 cytokine-dependent immunity and limits chronic inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract.
    J Exp Med. 2006 Apr 17;203(4):843-9 PMID: 16606667
  5. Th2 induction by Nippostrongylus secreted antigens in mice deficient in B cells, eosinophils or MHC Class I-related receptors.
    Immunol Lett. 2005 Jan 15;96(1):93-101 PMID: 15585312
  6. Mast cells disrupt epithelial barrier function during enteric nematode infection.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Jun 24;100(13):7761-6 PMID: 12796512
  7. Functional importance of regional differences in localized gene expression of receptors for IL-13 in murine gut.
    J Immunol. 2006 Jan 1;176(1):491-5 PMID: 16365442
  8. Basophils produce IL-4 and accumulate in tissues after infection with a Th2-inducing parasite.
    J Exp Med. 2004 Aug 16;200(4):507-17 PMID: 15314076
  9. A secreted protein from the human hookworm necator americanus binds selectively to NK cells and induces IFN-gamma production.
    J Immunol. 2004 Aug 15;173(4):2699-704 PMID: 15294988
  10. Delayed expulsion of the nematode Trichinella spiralis in mice lacking the mucosal mast cell-specific granule chymase, mouse mast cell protease-1.
    J Exp Med. 2000 Dec 18;192(12):1849-56 PMID: 11120781
  11. Severe CD4 T cell-mediated immunopathology in murine schistosomiasis is dependent on IL-12p40 and correlates with high levels of IL-17.
    J Immunol. 2005 Sep 15;175(6):3920-6 PMID: 16148138
  12. Reciprocal developmental pathways for the generation of pathogenic effector TH17 and regulatory T cells.
    Nature. 2006 May 11;441(7090):235-8 PMID: 16648838
  13. Alternatively activated macrophages differentially express fibronectin and its splice variants and the extracellular matrix protein betaIG-H3.
    Scand J Immunol. 2001 Apr;53(4):386-92 PMID: 11285119
  14. TGFbeta in the context of an inflammatory cytokine milieu supports de novo differentiation of IL-17-producing T cells.
    Immunity. 2006 Feb;24(2):179-89 PMID: 16473830
  15. Removal of regulatory T cell activity reverses hyporesponsiveness and leads to filarial parasite clearance in vivo.
    J Immunol. 2005 Apr 15;174(8):4924-33 PMID: 15814720
  16. Differential regulation of nitric oxide synthase-2 and arginase-1 by type 1/type 2 cytokines in vivo: granulomatous pathology is shaped by the pattern of L-arginine metabolism.
    J Immunol. 2001 Dec 1;167(11):6533-44 PMID: 11714822
  17. A Brugia malayi homolog of macrophage migration inhibitory factor reveals an important link between macrophages and eosinophil recruitment during nematode infection.
    J Immunol. 2001 Nov 1;167(9):5348-54 PMID: 11673551
  18. Parasites and the hygiene hypothesis: regulating the immune system?
    Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2004 Feb;26(1):15-24 PMID: 14755072
  19. The mast cell and gut nematodes: damage and defence.
    Chem Immunol Allergy. 2006;90:128-140 PMID: 16210907
  20. The role of IL-4 in Heligmosomoides polygyrus-induced alterations in murine intestinal epithelial cell function.
    J Immunol. 2001 Aug 15;167(4):2234-9 PMID: 11490010
  21. Cellular and serological responses in resistant and susceptible mice exposed to repeated infection with Heligmosomoides polygyrus bakeri.
    Parasite Immunol. 2003 Jun;25(6):333-40 PMID: 14507331
  22. Decreased atopy in children infected with Schistosoma haematobium: a role for parasite-induced interleukin-10.
    Lancet. 2000 Nov 18;356(9243):1723-7 PMID: 11095260
  23. Allergy, parasites, and the hygiene hypothesis.
    Science. 2002 Apr 19;296(5567):490-4 PMID: 11964470
  24. Parasite-induced Th2 polarization is associated with down-regulated dendritic cell responsiveness to Th1 stimuli and a transient delay in T lymphocyte cycling.
    J Immunol. 2004 Aug 15;173(4):2419-27 PMID: 15294955
  25. A novel host-parasite lipid cross-talk. Schistosomal lyso-phosphatidylserine activates toll-like receptor 2 and affects immune polarization.
    J Biol Chem. 2002 Dec 13;277(50):48122-9 PMID: 12359728
  26. Inhibition of T helper 2-type responses, IgE production and eosinophilia by synthetic lipopeptides.
    Eur J Immunol. 2003 Oct;33(10):2717-26 PMID: 14515255
  27. IL-13 receptor alpha 2 down-modulates granulomatous inflammation and prolongs host survival in schistosomiasis.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Jan 13;101(2):586-90 PMID: 14699044
  28. Identification of an interleukin (IL)-25-dependent cell population that provides IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 at the onset of helminth expulsion.
    J Exp Med. 2006 Apr 17;203(4):1105-16 PMID: 16606668
  29. The role of B cells in the development of CD4 effector T cells during a polarized Th2 immune response.
    J Immunol. 2007 Sep 15;179(6):3821-30 PMID: 17785819
  30. Granulomatous inflammation and the transmission of infection: schistosomiasis--and TB too?
    Immunol Today. 1998 Oct;19(10):462-7 PMID: 9785670
  31. Induction of CD8+ regulatory T cells in the intestine by Heligmosomoides polygyrus infection.
    Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2006 Aug;291(2):G253-9 PMID: 16825660
  32. Global gene expression profiles during acute pathogen-induced pulmonary inflammation reveal divergent roles for Th1 and Th2 responses in tissue repair.
    J Immunol. 2003 Oct 1;171(7):3655-67 PMID: 14500663
  33. The immunobiology of Th1 polarization in high-pathology schistosomiasis.
    Immunol Rev. 2004 Oct;201:168-79 PMID: 15361240
  34. Stem cell factor contributes to intestinal mucosal mast cell hyperplasia in rats infected with Nippostrongylus brasiliensis or Trichinella spiralis, but anti-stem cell factor treatment decreases parasite egg production during N brasiliensis infection.
    Blood. 1995 Sep 1;86(5):1968-76 PMID: 7544650
  35. Macrophages in the development of protective immunity against experimental Brugia malayi infection.
    Parasitology. 2004 Sep;129(Pt 3):311-23 PMID: 15471006
  36. Interleukin-4 and interleukin-13: their similarities and discrepancies.
    Int Rev Immunol. 1998;17(1-4):1-52 PMID: 9914942
  37. Synergism of gamma interferon and interleukin-5 in the control of murine filariasis.
    Infect Immun. 2003 Dec;71(12):6978-85 PMID: 14638787
  38. Three different neutrophil subsets exhibited in mice with different susceptibilities to infection by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.
    Immunity. 2004 Aug;21(2):215-26 PMID: 15308102
  39. CD4+ T cell-mediated granulomatous pathology in schistosomiasis is downregulated by a B cell-dependent mechanism requiring Fc receptor signaling.
    J Exp Med. 1998 Feb 16;187(4):619-29 PMID: 9463412
  40. Memory T(H)2 cells induce alternatively activated macrophages to mediate protection against nematode parasites.
    Nat Med. 2006 Aug;12(8):955-60 PMID: 16892038
  41. In infection with Schistosoma mansoni, B cells are required for T helper type 2 cell responses but not for granuloma formation.
    J Immunol. 1997 May 15;158(10):4832-7 PMID: 9144498
  42. Interleukin-5 (IL-5) augments the progression of liver fibrosis by regulating IL-13 activity.
    Infect Immun. 2006 Mar;74(3):1471-9 PMID: 16495517
  43. Alternative macrophage activation is essential for survival during schistosomiasis and downmodulates T helper 1 responses and immunopathology.
    Immunity. 2004 May;20(5):623-35 PMID: 15142530
  44. A schistosome-expressed immunomodulatory glycoconjugate expands peritoneal Gr1(+) macrophages that suppress naive CD4(+) T cell proliferation via an IFN-gamma and nitric oxide-dependent mechanism.
    J Immunol. 2001 Oct 15;167(8):4293-302 PMID: 11591752
  45. Macrophage polarization comes of age.
    Immunity. 2005 Oct;23(4):344-6 PMID: 16226499
  46. Eosinophil degranulation: an evolutionary vestige or a universally destructive effector function?
    Clin Exp Allergy. 2005 Aug;35(8):986-94 PMID: 16120079
  47. Chitinase and Fizz family members are a generalized feature of nematode infection with selective upregulation of Ym1 and Fizz1 by antigen-presenting cells.
    Infect Immun. 2005 Jan;73(1):385-94 PMID: 15618176
  48. Chronic helminth infection induces alternatively activated macrophages expressing high levels of CCR5 with low interleukin-12 production and Th2-biasing ability.
    Infect Immun. 2002 Jul;70(7):3656-64 PMID: 12065507
  49. The immune response to parasitic helminths: insights from murine models.
    Trends Immunol. 2003 May;24(5):269-77 PMID: 12738422
  50. Intestinal immune homeostasis is regulated by the crosstalk between epithelial cells and dendritic cells.
    Nat Immunol. 2005 May;6(5):507-14 PMID: 15821737
  51. The IL-21 receptor augments Th2 effector function and alternative macrophage activation.
    J Clin Invest. 2006 Jul;116(7):2044-55 PMID: 16778988
  52. Regulation of RELM/FIZZ isoform expression by Cdx2 in response to innate and adaptive immune stimulation in the intestine.
    Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2005 May;288(5):G1074-83 PMID: 15576623
  53. A macrophage protein, Ym1, transiently expressed during inflammation is a novel mammalian lectin.
    J Biol Chem. 2001 May 18;276(20):17497-506 PMID: 11297523
  54. Fc alpha/mu receptor mediates endocytosis of IgM-coated microbes.
    Nat Immunol. 2000 Nov;1(5):441-6 PMID: 11062505
  55. Dominant antibody responses to Fucalpha1-3GalNAc and Fucalpha1-2Fucalpha1-3GlcNAc containing carbohydrate epitopes in Pan troglodytes vaccinated and infected with Schistosoma mansoni.
    Exp Parasitol. 2003 Nov-Dec;105(3-4):219-25 PMID: 14990315
  56. Th1-polarizing immunization with egg antigens correlates with severe exacerbation of immunopathology and death in schistosome infection.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001 Nov 6;98(23):13243-8 PMID: 11606762
  57. Developmental checkpoints of the basophil/mast cell lineages in adult murine hematopoiesis.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Dec 13;102(50):18105-10 PMID: 16330751
  58. Alternatively activated antigen-presenting cells: molecular repertoire, immune regulation, and healing.
    Skin Pharmacol Appl Skin Physiol. 2001 Sep-Oct;14(5):272-9 PMID: 11586068
  59. Role of eosinophils and neutrophils in innate and adaptive protective immunity to larval strongyloides stercoralis in mice.
    Infect Immun. 2006 Oct;74(10):5730-8 PMID: 16988250
  60. Type 2 immunity is controlled by IL-4/IL-13 expression in hematopoietic non-eosinophil cells of the innate immune system.
    J Exp Med. 2006 Jun 12;203(6):1435-46 PMID: 16702603
  61. Toll-like receptor control of the adaptive immune responses.
    Nat Immunol. 2004 Oct;5(10):987-95 PMID: 15454922
  62. Interleukin-23 rather than interleukin-12 is the critical cytokine for autoimmune inflammation of the brain.
    Nature. 2003 Feb 13;421(6924):744-8 PMID: 12610626
  63. Eosinophils can function as antigen-presenting cells to induce primary and secondary immune responses to Strongyloides stercoralis.
    Infect Immun. 2006 Jun;74(6):3232-8 PMID: 16714550
  64. CD25+CD4+ cells contribute to Th2 polarization during helminth infection by suppressing Th1 response development.
    J Immunol. 2004 Jul 15;173(2):1224-31 PMID: 15240714
  65. Interleukin-23 promotes a distinct CD4 T cell activation state characterized by the production of interleukin-17.
    J Biol Chem. 2003 Jan 17;278(3):1910-4 PMID: 12417590
  66. Mechanisms of neonatal mucosal antibody protection.
    J Immunol. 2006 Nov 1;177(9):6256-62 PMID: 17056555
  67. Cloning and functional characterization of resistin-like molecule gamma.
    Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2004 Feb 6;314(2):356-62 PMID: 14733912
  68. IL-2 and autocrine IL-4 drive the in vivo development of antigen-specific Th2 T cells elicited by nematode parasites.
    J Immunol. 2005 Feb 15;174(4):2242-9 PMID: 15699158
  69. IL-10 and the dangers of immune polarization: excessive type 1 and type 2 cytokine responses induce distinct forms of lethal immunopathology in murine schistosomiasis.
    J Immunol. 2000 Jun 15;164(12):6406-16 PMID: 10843696
  70. A novel phenotype for an activated macrophage: the type 2 activated macrophage.
    J Leukoc Biol. 2002 Jul;72(1):101-6 PMID: 12101268
  71. Evaluation of the hepatic NK cell response during the early phase of Fasciola hepatica infection in rats.
    Vet Res. 2002 May-Jun;33(3):327-32 PMID: 12056483
  72. Depletion of eosinophils by anti-IL-5 monoclonal antibody treatment of mice infected with Trichinella spiralis does not alter parasite burden or immunologic resistance to reinfection.
    J Immunol. 1992 Dec 1;149(11):3642-7 PMID: 1431133
  73. The in vivo role of stem cell factor (c-kit ligand) on mastocytosis and host protective immunity to the intestinal nematode Trichinella spiralis in mice.
    Parasite Immunol. 1993 Jan;15(1):55-9 PMID: 7679484
  74. Acidic mammalian chitinase in asthmatic Th2 inflammation and IL-13 pathway activation.
    Science. 2004 Jun 11;304(5677):1678-82 PMID: 15192232
  75. Hay fever, hygiene, and household size.
    BMJ. 1989 Nov 18;299(6710):1259-60 PMID: 2513902
  76. Chitin induces accumulation in tissue of innate immune cells associated with allergy.
    Nature. 2007 May 3;447(7140):92-6 PMID: 17450126
  77. Alternatively activated macrophages in helminth infections.
    Curr Opin Immunol. 2007 Aug;19(4):448-53 PMID: 17702561
  78. Regulatory T cell responses develop in parallel to Th responses and control the magnitude and phenotype of the Th effector population.
    J Immunol. 2006 May 15;176(10):5839-47 PMID: 16670290
  79. CCR8 is expressed by antigen-elicited, IL-10-producing CD4+CD25+ T cells, which regulate Th2-mediated granuloma formation in mice.
    J Immunol. 2005 Feb 15;174(4):1962-70 PMID: 15699124
  80. The Trichuris muris system: a paradigm of resistance and susceptibility to intestinal nematode infection.
    Adv Parasitol. 2004;57:255-307 PMID: 15504540
  81. CD4(+)CD25(-)Foxp3(-) Th1 cells are the source of IL-10-mediated immune suppression in chronic cutaneous leishmaniasis.
    J Exp Med. 2007 Feb 19;204(2):285-97 PMID: 17283207
  82. Induction of Th2 responses and IgE is largely due to carbohydrates functioning as adjuvants on Schistosoma mansoni egg antigens.
    J Immunol. 1999 Dec 15;163(12):6712-7 PMID: 10586068
  83. Schistosoma mansoni infection in eosinophil lineage-ablated mice.
    Blood. 2006 Oct 1;108(7):2420-7 PMID: 16772607
  84. Interleukin 5 (IL-5) is not required for expression of a Th2 response or host resistance mechanisms during murine schistosomiasis mansoni but does play a role in development of IL-4-producing non-T, non-B cells.
    Infect Immun. 1999 Jun;67(6):3014-8 PMID: 10338513
  85. Impaired resistance in early secondary Nippostrongylus brasiliensis infections in mice with defective eosinophilopoeisis.
    Int J Parasitol. 2007 Oct;37(12):1367-78 PMID: 17555758
  86. Epithelial-cell-intrinsic IKK-beta expression regulates intestinal immune homeostasis.
    Nature. 2007 Mar 29;446(7135):552-6 PMID: 17322906
  87. Innate immune responses to lung-stage helminth infection induce alternatively activated alveolar macrophages.
    Infect Immun. 2006 Sep;74(9):4970-81 PMID: 16926388
  88. Molecular and cellular mechanisms of allergic disease.
    J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001 Aug;108(2 Suppl):S65-71 PMID: 11498675
  89. Schistosomes: the road from host-parasite interactions to vaccines in clinical trials.
    Trends Parasitol. 2005 Mar;21(3):143-9 PMID: 15734662
  90. Critical role for IgM in host protection in experimental filarial infection.
    J Immunol. 2005 Aug 1;175(3):1827-33 PMID: 16034125
  91. RELMbeta/FIZZ2 is a goblet cell-specific immune-effector molecule in the gastrointestinal tract.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Sep 14;101(37):13596-600 PMID: 15340149
  92. Resistin-like molecule beta regulates innate colonic function: barrier integrity and inflammation susceptibility.
    J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006 Jul;118(1):257-68 PMID: 16815164
  93. Local anaphylactic reactions to the penetration of cercariae of Schistosoma mansoni.
    Braz J Med Biol Res. 1990;23(3-4):275-81 PMID: 2128820
  94. New technologies for the control of human hookworm infection.
    Trends Parasitol. 2006 Jul;22(7):327-31 PMID: 16709466
  95. The wound repair response controls outcome to cutaneous leishmaniasis.
    Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Oct 25;102(43):15551-6 PMID: 16223880
  96. Dependence of IL-4, IL-13, and nematode-induced alterations in murine small intestinal smooth muscle contractility on Stat6 and enteric nerves.
    J Immunol. 2003 Jul 15;171(2):948-54 PMID: 12847266
  97. Parasites, atopy, and the hygiene hypothesis: resolution of a paradox?
    Lancet. 2000 Nov 18;356(9243):1699-701 PMID: 11095252
  98. F4/80+ alternatively activated macrophages control CD4+ T cell hyporesponsiveness at sites peripheral to filarial infection.
    J Immunol. 2006 Jun 1;176(11):6918-27 PMID: 16709852
  99. Regulation of allergy and autoimmunity in helminth infection.
    Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2004 Feb;26(1):35-50 PMID: 14755074
  100. Naturally occurring CD4+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells are an essential, IL-10-independent part of the immunoregulatory network in Schistosoma mansoni egg-induced inflammation.
    J Immunol. 2006 May 1;176(9):5374-87 PMID: 16622005
  101. Conventional T-bet(+)Foxp3(-) Th1 cells are the major source of host-protective regulatory IL-10 during intracellular protozoan infection.
    J Exp Med. 2007 Feb 19;204(2):273-83 PMID: 17283209
  102. Requirements for the development of IL-4-producing T cells during intestinal nematode infections: what it takes to make a Th2 cell in vivo.
    Immunol Rev. 2004 Oct;201:57-74 PMID: 15361233
  103. Interleukin-4- and interleukin-13-mediated host protection against intestinal nematode parasites.
    Immunol Rev. 2004 Oct;201:139-55 PMID: 15361238
  104. New and emerging roles for mast cells in host defence.
    Curr Opin Immunol. 2007 Feb;19(1):31-8 PMID: 17126541
  105. Schistosome glycans and innate immunity.
    Parasite Immunol. 2005 Jul-Aug;27(7-8):257-64 PMID: 16138846
  106. Expression of the Necator americanus hookworm larval antigen Na-ASP-2 in Pichia pastoris and purification of the recombinant protein for use in human clinical trials.
    Vaccine. 2005 Sep 15;23(39):4754-64 PMID: 16054275
  107. Modulation of blood fluke development in the liver by hepatic CD4+ lymphocytes.
    Science. 2001 Nov 9;294(5545):1358-61 PMID: 11701932
  108. Natural regulatory T cells in infectious disease.
    Nat Immunol. 2005 Apr;6(4):353-60 PMID: 15785761
  109. Macrophages from schistosomal egg granulomas induce unresponsiveness in specific cloned Th-1 lymphocytes in vitro and down-regulate schistosomal granulomatous disease in vivo.
    J Immunol. 1994 Feb 15;152(4):1847-55 PMID: 8120394
  110. Accelerated intestinal epithelial cell turnover: a new mechanism of parasite expulsion.
    Science. 2005 Jun 3;308(5727):1463-5 PMID: 15933199
  111. IL-21 initiates an alternative pathway to induce proinflammatory T(H)17 cells.
    Nature. 2007 Jul 26;448(7152):484-487 PMID: 17581588
  112. Enteric nematodes induce stereotypic STAT6-dependent alterations in intestinal epithelial cell function.
    J Immunol. 2004 May 1;172(9):5616-21 PMID: 15100305
  113. Proteins secreted by the parasitic nematode Nippostrongylus brasiliensis act as adjuvants for Th2 responses.
    Eur J Immunol. 2000 Jul;30(7):1977-87 PMID: 10940887
  114. Cutting edge: dendritic cells copulsed with microbial and helminth antigens undergo modified maturation, segregate the antigens to distinct intracellular compartments, and concurrently induce microbe-specific Th1 and helminth-specific Th2 responses.
    J Immunol. 2004 Feb 15;172(4):2016-20 PMID: 14764665
  115. Trichuris suis seems to be safe and possibly effective in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease.
    Am J Gastroenterol. 2003 Sep;98(9):2034-41 PMID: 14499784
  116. Novel effector molecules in type 2 inflammation: lessons drawn from helminth infection and allergy.
    J Immunol. 2006 Aug 1;177(3):1393-9 PMID: 16849442
  117. Inflammatory cells during wound repair: the good, the bad and the ugly.
    Trends Cell Biol. 2005 Nov;15(11):599-607 PMID: 16202600
  118. Correlation between eosinophils and protection against reinfection with Schistosoma mansoni and the effect of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 coinfection in humans.
    Infect Immun. 2006 Apr;74(4):2169-76 PMID: 16552047
  119. Suppression of TH2-type allergic reactions by helminth infection.
    Nat Rev Immunol. 2007 Mar;7(3):220-30 PMID: 17318233
  120. Basophils express a type 2 cytokine profile on exposure to proteases from helminths and house dust mites.
    J Leukoc Biol. 2003 Jan;73(1):165-71 PMID: 12525574
  121. Fibrotic disease and the T(H)1/T(H)2 paradigm.
    Nat Rev Immunol. 2004 Aug;4(8):583-94 PMID: 15286725
  122. IL-4 dependent alternatively-activated macrophages have a distinctive in vivo gene expression phenotype.
    BMC Immunol. 2002 Jul 04;3:7 PMID: 12098359
  123. Eosinophils, but not eosinophil peroxidase or major basic protein, are important for host protection in experimental Brugia pahangi infection.
    Infect Immun. 2005 Dec;73(12):8442-3 PMID: 16299347
  124. TH2 cytokines and allergic challenge induce Ym1 expression in macrophages by a STAT6-dependent mechanism.
    J Biol Chem. 2002 Nov 8;277(45):42821-9 PMID: 12215441
  125. Schistosoma mansoni egg-induced early IL-4 production is dependent upon IL-5 and eosinophils.
    J Exp Med. 1996 Nov 1;184(5):1871-8 PMID: 8920874
  126. Peripheral CD4 T cells rapidly accumulate at the host: parasite interface during an inflammatory Th2 memory response.
    J Immunol. 2004 Feb 15;172(4):2424-30 PMID: 14764713
  127. A novel therapeutic approach targeting articular inflammation using the filarial nematode-derived phosphorylcholine-containing glycoprotein ES-62.
    J Immunol. 2003 Aug 15;171(4):2127-33 PMID: 12902519
  128. Helper T cells regulate type-2 innate immunity in vivo.
    Nature. 2002 Dec 19-26;420(6917):825-9 PMID: 12490951
  129. Intraepithelial NK cell-derived IL-13 induces intestinal pathology associated with nematode infection.
    J Immunol. 2005 Sep 1;175(5):3207-13 PMID: 16116211
  130. Human IgE, IgG4 and resistance to reinfection with Schistosoma haematobium.
    Nature. 1991 Jan 17;349(6306):243-5 PMID: 1898985
  131. Biochemical characterization of endogenously formed eosinophilic crystals in the lungs of mice.
    J Biol Chem. 2000 Mar 17;275(11):8032-7 PMID: 10713123
  132. Mast cells: beyond IgE.
    J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003 Jan;111(1):24-32; quiz 33 PMID: 12532090
  133. Essential autocrine regulation by IL-21 in the generation of inflammatory T cells.
    Nature. 2007 Jul 26;448(7152):480-3 PMID: 17581589
  134. The many faces of macrophage activation.
    J Leukoc Biol. 2003 Feb;73(2):209-12 PMID: 12554797
  135. The hormone resistin links obesity to diabetes.
    Nature. 2001 Jan 18;409(6818):307-12 PMID: 11201732
  136. Role of STAT6 and mast cells in IL-4- and IL-13-induced alterations in murine intestinal epithelial cell function.
    J Immunol. 2002 Oct 15;169(8):4417-22 PMID: 12370375
Article Info
Journal
Nature reviews. Immunology
Abbr.
Nat Rev Immunol
ISSN
1474-1741
Published
2007-12-00
Pages
975-87
Language
English
Region
England
NLM ID
101124169
PMCID
PMC2258092
Subset
IM
Grants
NIAID NIH HHS · AI066188 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI031678-08 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI066188-01A1 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI031678-11 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI031678-13 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI066188-03 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · AI031678 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI031678 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI031678-06 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI031678-09 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI066188-02 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI031678-12 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI031678-07 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI031678-10 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI031678-14 · United States
NIAID NIH HHS · R01 AI066188 · United States
Analysis Services
Analysis Services

Contact

No. 2 Wenbo Road, Zhangqiu District, Jinan, Shandong

Qilu Normal University · Genelibs Bioinformatics Lab

750 Shunhua Rd, Jinan

2F, Bldg F, University Science Park

Tel: 0531-88819269

WeChat Official Account

Follow our WeChat subscription account for real-time updates and the latest in medical and biological research.


Business Email

E-mail: [email protected]